Plasticizers for PVC: 12 Plasticizer Classes, Dosage and Selection

Plasticizers for PVC are high-boiling esters, mainly ortho-phthalates, terephthalates, trimellitates and adipates, that make up 5-65 wt% of a flexible PVC compound and turn rigid polyvinyl chloride into a soft material of Shore A 50-90. Without them, PVC stays a glassy solid with a glass transition temperature of 82 °C, so which of the 12 plasticizer classes suits cable, flooring, film or a medical tube, and at what phr?

More than 85 % of plasticizers in Europe go into flexible PVC (European Plasticisers), which makes plasticizers the largest group of plastic additives by weight; by one estimate, plasticizers account for 34 % of the plastics additive market by mass. The hub on plasticizers for plastics covers the same classes in PLA, rubber, PVB and cellulosics, but PVC is where the chemistry began and where it still carries the most tonnage.

This guide works through the mechanism that lets a small ester molecule turn a rigid resin into a soft one, the 12 plasticizer classes used in PVC today, and which one is the most common. It then converts dosage between phr and wt%, gives substitution factors for replacing DEHP, and matches classes to seven applications from cable to toys. It covers how plasticizers interact with heat stabilizers and fillers, how plasticized PVC is tested for hardness and permanence, which substances REACH, EU 10/2011, FDA, CPSIA and the POPs rules restrict, and who supplies each grade.

Key figures

• 5-65 wt% plasticizer content in flexible PVC compounds
• About 15 phr is the practical minimum before PVC turns flexible rather than stiffer
• 8.4 Mt/yr global plasticizer consumption (European Plasticisers)
• 0.1 % EU limit on DEHP, DBP, BBP and DIBP combined in plasticized articles, in force since 7 July 2020

PlasticAdditives.net Editorial Team. Every number on this page is checked against PubChem, ECHA, EUR-Lex, eCFR and OEHHA; see how we verify facts.

Why Does PVC Need Plasticizers?#

PVC needs plasticizers because its polar, chlorine-rich chains (57 % Cl by mass) hold each other so tightly that the unmodified polymer stays rigid up to its glass transition temperature of 82 °C. About 40 % of PVC processed in the EU is flexible PVC (VinylPlus 2023); the other 60 % is rigid uPVC that carries no plasticizer at all. Below roughly 15 phr, a plasticizer does not soften PVC at all: it stiffens the compound instead, an effect called antiplasticization. Matuana and co-workers documented this in PVC/wood-fibre composites, where yield strength rose as DOP loading increased up to 3.75 phr before the compound began to soften in the normal sense. Above that threshold, every additional phr of plasticizer lowers hardness and raises elongation in a predictable, near-linear way until the target Shore A value is reached.

How do plasticizers make PVC flexible?#

Plasticizers make PVC flexible by solvating its chains and adding free volume between them, which lowers the glass transition temperature from 82 °C to below room temperature. Four theories explain this mechanism, and each one describes a different part of the same process:

• Lubricity theory (Kirkpatrick, Clark, Houwink): the plasticizer coats and separates PVC chains so they slide past one another under stress, the way a lubricant reduces friction between two solid surfaces.
• Gel theory (Aiken, Doolittle): PVC is treated as a loose three-dimensional network held by secondary bonding forces; the plasticizer breaks a fraction of those polymer-polymer contacts and replaces them with weaker polymer-plasticizer contacts.
• Free-volume theory (Fox and Flory, Doolittle, Sears and Darby): the plasticizer molecule inserts extra unoccupied space between chains, and free volume, not the plasticizer's own bulk, is what lowers the glass transition temperature.
• Mechanistic (solvation-desolvation) theory: plasticizer molecules continuously solvate and desolvate polar sites on the PVC chain, a dynamic exchange that keeps the chains mobile rather than a single, fixed coating.

Compatibility between a plasticizer and PVC is commonly judged by the difference in solubility parameter between the two, and a difference within about ±1.5 (cal/cm³)^½ of PVC's own value is the accepted rule of thumb for good, durable compatibility (Hallstar). Within a homologous series of esters, a longer alcohol chain lowers polarity and volatility and improves low-temperature flexibility, but it also lowers compatibility with PVC; more branching in that chain lowers volatility further but worsens low-temperature performance. Peter H. Daniels reviewed these four theories in the Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology (2009, vol. 15, 219-223), and Joseph K. Sears and J. Russell Darby of Monsanto set out the free-volume view in The Technology of Plasticizers (Wiley, 1982). The solubility-parameter and free-volume concepts behind these theories are worked through in full on how plasticizers work.

Primary plasticizers, secondary plasticizers and extenders#

A primary plasticizer is compatible enough with PVC to be used alone, a secondary plasticizer such as ESBO or a chlorinated paraffin works only next to a primary, and an extender is a low-cost diluent that PVC tolerates only in small shares. Primary plasticizers, including phthalates, terephthalates and trimellitates, solvate the PVC chain directly and do not exude or bleed to the surface when used alone. Secondary plasticizers have limited compatibility by themselves; blended alongside a primary, they cut formulation cost or add a specific property, such as HCl scavenging in the case of ESBO. Extenders, typically petroleum hydrocarbon or chlorinated oils, plasticize PVC only when a primary carries most of the load and keeps the compound from exuding.

Formulators researching this distinction in more depth can read the fuller comparison of primary vs secondary plasticizers, which extends the same three-way split across other host polymers.

What are the three types of plasticizers?#

The three types of plasticizers by role are primary plasticizers, secondary plasticizers and extenders; by function, specialty plasticizers for PVC split into low-temperature, high-temperature and permanent (polymeric) types. The role-based split (primary, secondary, extender) describes how compatible a plasticizer is with PVC on its own. The function-based split, used by suppliers such as Hallstar to organize specialty esters, sits alongside the commodity general-purpose group and separates plasticizers chosen for cold flex, hot service or long-term permanence.

What Are the 12 Types of Plasticizers Used in PVC?#

The 12 types of plasticizers used in PVC are ortho-phthalates, terephthalates, cyclohexane dicarboxylates, trimellitates, aliphatic diesters, polymeric plasticizers, epoxidized oils, benzoates, citrates, phosphate esters, chlorinated paraffins and alkylsulfonic phenyl esters, with ortho-phthalates and terephthalates carrying most of the general-purpose tonnage. Table 1 lists the lead PVC substances in each class, their CAS numbers, their main job in the compound and their one-word EU restriction status.

Table 1. PVC plasticizer classes

Restriction status is given in one word; the full regulatory matrix is in the restrictions section below.

1. Ortho-phthalates (DINP, DIDP, DPHP and legacy DEHP)#

Ortho-phthalates are diesters of ortho-phthalic acid, and in PVC the high-molecular-weight grades DINP, DIDP and DPHP (7-13 carbon atoms in the alcohol backbone) are the general-purpose workhorses that replaced DEHP. These high-molecular-weight (HMW) phthalates now account for about 85 % of Western European ortho-phthalate production, while the low-molecular-weight (LMW) group, with a 3-6 carbon backbone, holds less than 11 %. DINP (CAS 28553-12-0) is close to a 1:1 substitute for DEHP by dosage in flooring, according to Klotz and colleagues (2024), and is sold as Palatinol N (BASF), Vestinol 9 (Evonik) and Jayflex DINP (ExxonMobil). DIDP has lower volatility than DINP and is favored in cable and automotive parts, while DPHP fills the same general-purpose role in cable, roofing and automotive interiors. The phthalate plasticizers page works through the full LMW/HMW split and lists every grade in each group.

DEHP (DOP), by contrast, is legacy general-purpose chemistry: it fuses fast and plasticizes efficiently, but it is a harmonised Repr. 1B substance (H360FD), has been an SVHC since 28 October 2008 and sits under REACH Annex XVII entry 51. Most new flexible PVC formulated for the EU market today uses DINP, DIDP or DPHP in DEHP's place, with DEHP itself confined to legacy recipes and to a narrowing set of medical-device uses.

Is DOP the same as DEHP?#

Yes: in the PVC trade, DOP (dioctyl phthalate) means DEHP, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, CAS 117-81-7, and not the linear isomer di-n-octyl phthalate (DNOP, CAS 117-84-0). DEHP carries EC number 204-211-0, the molecular formula C24H38O4 and a molecular weight of 390.6 g/mol. Full identity data, restrictions and the 2030 medical-device deadline are on DEHP (DOP, dioctyl phthalate).

2. Terephthalates (DOTP/DEHT)#

DOTP (DEHT, CAS 6422-86-2) is the para isomer of DEHP: it has the same formula and molecular weight (C24H38O4, 390.6 g/mol) and plasticizes PVC almost as efficiently, but its para-substituted ring does not form the stable monoester linked to ortho-phthalate toxicity. DOTP carries EC number 229-176-9 and is not an SVHC. It is sold as Eastman 168, Kodaflex DOTP (Eastman) and Palatinol DOTP (BASF), and its grades and identity data are listed on DOTP (DEHT).

DOTP is used across wire and cable, flooring, toys and childcare articles, medical devices, plastisols, gloves and shoes, and in the EU it carries FCM number 798 with a specific migration limit of 60 mg/kg. Its typical substitution factor relative to DEHP is 1.03. In the United States DOTP is cleared under 21 CFR 177.1210(b)(5) at up to 75 parts per hundred of the vinyl chloride resin in closures with sealing gaskets and is the subject of five effective food contact notifications (FCN 770, 1056, 1473, 1778 and 2468), it is on the TSCA Inventory with an active commercial status and no risk evaluation under way, and it is not on the California Proposition 65 list (OEHHA list edition of 31 July 2026, all checked 25 September 2026).

Is DOTP a phthalate?#

No, not in the regulatory sense: DOTP is a terephthalate (a para-phthalate ester), and the phthalate restrictions in REACH, CPSIA and EU 10/2011 apply to ortho-phthalates only. Regulators, including the US EPA, define "phthalate" as a dialkyl ortho-phthalic acid ester, a definition that DOTP's para-substituted ring falls outside of. This is also why DOTP is not on the SVHC Candidate List. The same rule applies to the wider terephthalate plasticizers family, which follows the same para-isomer logic.

3. Cyclohexane dicarboxylates (DINCH, DEHCH)#

Cyclohexane dicarboxylates are ring-hydrogenated phthalates: DINCH (CAS 166412-78-8) is the lead grade for sensitive PVC uses such as medical devices, toys and food film, and it gives plastisols a lower, more stable paste viscosity than DOP or DINP. DINCH results from hydrogenating the aromatic ring of DINP into a cyclohexane ring, producing a roughly 90:10 mixture of cis and trans isomers with a pour point of -54 °C and a vapour pressure below 0.01 mbar at 20 °C (BASF technical data sheet, May 2023). DINCH carries EC number 431-890-2 and EU FCM number 775 in group 32, and is sold as Hexamoll DINCH (BASF) and Elatur CH (Evonik). DEHCH (CAS 84731-70-4), the hydrogenated analogue of DOTP, is sold as Eco-DEHCH (Hanwha) for flooring, wallcovering and toys and is not listed in EU 10/2011. The DINCH (Hexamoll DINCH) page has the full plastisol viscosity data. Cyclohexane dicarboxylate plasticizers as a class share this ring-hydrogenation chemistry across both the phthalate and terephthalate precursor structures.

4. Trimellitates (TOTM, TINTM)#

Trimellitates are triesters of trimellitic acid, and TOTM (CAS 3319-31-1, 546.8 g/mol) is the standard PVC plasticizer for hot service because its three ester arms keep volatility and migration very low. Kaya and colleagues (2026, Polymers) measured a thermal decomposition onset of 262 °C for TOTM in PVC at 50 phr, compared with 236 °C for DOA under the same conditions, a difference that explains why TOTM is chosen for high-temperature cable insulation, low-fogging automotive interiors and medical tubing rather than for cold-flex parts. TOTM is used at around 35 wt% in typical formulations (ECHA exposure mapping) and carries a typical substitution factor of 1.11 relative to DEHP. TINTM (CAS 53894-23-8) has even lower volatility than TOTM. Neither substance appears in EU 10/2011. Thermal data for TOTM (trioctyl trimellitate) come from cable studies, and the trimellitate plasticizers class covers both substances against the wider aromatic-ester field.

5. Aliphatic diesters: adipates, sebacates and azelates#

Adipates, sebacates and azelates are linear aliphatic diesters that give PVC the best cold flexibility, which is why DOA (DEHA, CAS 103-23-1) is the main plasticizer in PVC cling film and a common blend partner in cold-flex cable. DOA carries EU FCM number 207 with a specific migration limit of 18 mg/kg, and 21 CFR 178.3740 caps its use in vinyl chloride film at 24 % for film up to 0.005 inch thick, rising to 35 % for film up to 0.002 inch thick. DINA (CAS 33703-08-1) has lower volatility than DOA and is chosen where longer service life at cold temperature matters. DOS/DEHS (CAS 122-62-3) is a premium low-temperature diester; its current REACH manufacturing status is unverified and is not stated here as fact. DOA's typical substitution factor relative to DEHP is 0.93, meaning it is a slightly more efficient plasticizer by weight. Full FDA film limits for DOA (DEHA, dioctyl adipate) are listed alongside its identity data, and the broader adipate, azelate and sebacate plasticizer group is treated together as a class.

6. Polymeric (polyester) plasticizers#

Polymeric plasticizers are low-molecular-weight polyesters of a dibasic acid and a glycol, and they give PVC the highest permanence against oils, solvents and heat at the cost of cold flexibility and processing speed. They alternate dibasic acids of 4 to 10 carbon atoms with glycols of 2 to 5 carbon atoms, end-capped with a monobasic acid or alcohol, and higher-viscosity grades give greater permanence. Hallstar's comparative performance ratings place polymeric plasticizers as good to excellent for resistance to organic extraction and volatility, but only poor to fair for low-temperature flexibility, and poor to good for resistance to aqueous extraction. Brand families include Palamoll (BASF) and Admex (Eastman). One patent example describes a cable formulation combining 35 phr of a polymeric plasticizer with 30 phr of a monomeric one to balance permanence against processability; this single recipe illustrates the trade-off rather than a general dosage rule. Viscosity grades of polymeric plasticizers are compared by permanence in the dedicated class page.

7. Epoxidized vegetable oils (ESBO, ELO)#

Epoxidized soybean oil (ESBO, CAS 8013-07-8) is a secondary plasticizer with a second job: its oxirane rings scavenge the HCl that PVC releases, so 1-2 wt% works as a co-stabilizer next to Ca/Zn, while 25-45 wt% is needed if ESBO is the main plasticizer. Czogała, Pankalla and Turczyn reviewed this dual-dosage pattern in Materials (2021, 14:844). ESBO carries EC number 232-391-0 and a molecular weight of about 1,000 g/mol, and it is synergistic with calcium/zinc heat stabilizer systems. In the EU it carries FCM number 532 with a specific migration limit of 60 mg/kg, tightened to 30 mg/kg for infant-food jar gaskets, and it is covered under FDA 21 CFR 181.27 as a prior-sanctioned substance. ELO (CAS 8016-11-3) has a higher oxirane content than ESBO and is capped at an iodine value of 5 and an oxirane content of at least 9 % under 21 CFR 178.3740. The gasket specific migration limit for ESBO (epoxidized soybean oil) applies specifically to infant food, and the wider epoxidized plasticizers class covers ELO alongside ESBO.

8. Benzoates (DPGDB and monobenzoates)#

Benzoates are fast-fusing plasticizers: dibenzoates such as DPGDB (CAS 27138-31-4) gel PVC at lower temperatures and took over the role of BBP in vinyl flooring, but they thicken plastisols during storage. DPGDB is used in vinyl flooring, plastisol flooring and sealants. Fast fusers as a group, including DBP, DIBP, BBP, DIHP and DPGDB, cause a strong viscosity rise in stored plastisol over time. Monobenzoates such as isononyl or isodecyl benzoate combine fast fusion with viscosity depression, a combination documented in the patent literature. DPGDB is compared with other mono- and dibenzoates under benzoate plasticizers.

9. Citrates and bio-based esters (ATBC, BTHC, COMGHA)#

Citrate esters such as ATBC (CAS 77-90-7) and BTHC (CAS 82469-79-2) are non-phthalate PVC plasticizers for toys, food film and blood bags, and ATBC is listed for EU food contact under FCM 138. ATBC is used at 10-35 wt% (ECHA exposure mapping) and is also covered under FDA 21 CFR 181.27 as a prior-sanctioned substance. BTHC is used in blood and platelet storage bags, though PVC plasticized with BTHC has higher oxygen and carbon dioxide permeability than DEHP-PVC. The European Pharmacopoeia lists four DEHP alternatives for blood containers: DINCH, BTHC, TOTM and DEHT. COMGHA (CAS 736150-63-3), sold as Grindsted Soft-n-Safe and roughly 80 % bio-based, carries EU FCM number 783; the Danish EPA named DEHT, DINCH and COMGHA the three most promising DEHP alternatives in its own assessment. ATBC (acetyl tributyl citrate) also plasticizes PLA, extending its use beyond PVC. Citrate plasticizers and bio-based plasticizers overlap in this class, and BTHC is covered alongside ATBC as a class member.

10. Phosphate esters#

Phosphate esters are flame-retardant plasticizers for PVC: tricresyl phosphate (TCP) and 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP) soften the compound and add phosphorus-based fire performance, while aryl groups raise smoke. Aryl phosphates generate more smoke than alkyl phosphates, and adding magnesium hydroxide changes aryl-phosphate smoke from black to white (Hallstar). TCP (CAS 1330-78-5) is used as a flame-retardant plasticizer in PVC and cellulosics; its neurotoxicity (organophosphate-induced delayed neuropathy) is linked specifically to its ortho-cresyl isomer, and commercial grades minimise that isomer's content. EHDPP (CAS 1241-94-7) is used in food-packaging PVC under EU FCM number 392 with a specific migration limit of 2.4 mg/kg. Smoke and limiting-oxygen-index data for phosphate ester plasticizers are compared across the whole class.

11. Chlorinated paraffins (MCCP, LCCP)#

Chlorinated paraffins are low-cost secondary plasticizers that also retard flame in PVC cable with antimony trioxide, but the short-chain grades are banned as POPs and medium-chain MCCP joins them under the Stockholm Convention from 16 December 2026. The class splits by carbon-chain length into SCCP (C10-13), MCCP (C14-17) and LCCP (above C17), each with 30-70 wt% chlorine content. A blend of 70 % DOP with 30 % chlorinated paraffin gives DOP-equivalent hardness in some secondary-source formulations (Kanademy). SCCP has been banned since its 2017 Stockholm Convention listing (SC-8/11). MCCP has been an SVHC since 8 July 2021 and was added to Stockholm Annex A by decision SC-12/10 at COP-12 (2025), entering into force on 16 December 2026; the matching EU Delegated Regulation, C(2026) 6262, was adopted by the Commission on 11 September 2026 but was not yet published in the Official Journal at the time of writing. LCCP (CAS 63449-39-8) is not an SVHC. Chain-length classes are defined in full on MCCP (medium-chain chlorinated paraffins), including the class as a whole under chlorinated paraffins (SCCP, MCCP, LCCP).

12. Alkylsulfonic phenyl esters (Mesamoll)#

Alkylsulfonic phenyl esters (ASE, CAS 91082-17-6), sold by Lanxess as Mesamoll, are general-purpose PVC plasticizers chosen where the compound must resist hydrolysis and saponification. ASE carries EC number 293-728-5 and is used across PVC, polyurethane, NBR and CR rubber, and sealants wherever a plasticizer must survive prolonged contact with water or alkaline media without breaking down. It is not listed in EU 10/2011. Identity data for Mesamoll (alkylsulfonic phenyl ester) cover its full physical and regulatory profile.

What Is the Most Common Plasticizer for PVC?#

DEHP (DOP) was still the most-used PVC plasticizer worldwide in 2018, at an estimated 3.24 million tonnes per year (Ceresana), but in Western Europe high-molecular-weight phthalates such as DINP now make up about 85 % of ortho-phthalate production. DINP (diisononyl phthalate) replaced DEHP almost 1:1 in flooring, and the same substitution pattern holds across most general-purpose flexible PVC formulated for regulated markets. DEHP's global lead reflects legacy volume in regions with fewer restrictions, not current European practice.

S&P Global forecasts that phthalates will still account for 52.4 % of global plasticizer demand in 2029, growing at 2.3 % per year, even as DOTP and other non-phthalate plasticizers gain share (S&P Global CEH, December 2024). The shift is driven less by a single substance overtaking DEHP worldwide than by regulated markets converging on DINP, DOTP and DINCH while less-regulated markets continue to consume DEHP.

How Much Plasticizer Does PVC Need?#

Flexible PVC contains 5-65 wt% plasticizer, and at least about 15 phr is needed before PVC turns flexible rather than stiffer; the exact level is set by the target Shore A hardness, the plasticizer's efficiency, the service temperature and any regulatory cap. Wiesinger and colleagues (2024) reported this 5-65 wt% range across a large sample of PVC products. Measured medical tubing content runs from 26.7 to 48.7 wt% depending on the plasticizer (Bernard et al. 2018), and plastisol closure gaskets typically carry 25-45 % plasticizer. Four factors drive the exact figure a formulator selects:

• Target hardness (Shore A): softer parts need more plasticizer per 100 parts of resin.
• Plasticizer efficiency (substitution factor): a less efficient plasticizer needs a higher phr loading to reach the same hardness.
• Service temperature and permanence: cold-flex and high-permanence requirements both push toward specific classes and dosages.
• Legal caps: for example, 21 CFR 178.3740 limits DOA in food-contact film to 24 % or 35 % by film thickness.

Converting phr to wt% in a plasticized PVC compound#

A plasticizer's weight percentage equals its phr divided by the total phr of the compound, times 100, so 55 phr DIDP in a 257.7 phr cable compound is 21.3 wt%. The formula is wt% = phr_i / total phr x 100, where phr_i is the plasticizer's own phr and total phr sums every ingredient in the recipe, resin included. A worked example based on a Huber reference cable formulation shows the calculation:

1. Sum every ingredient: PVC K70 resin (100 phr) + DIDP (55 phr) + lead-free heat stabilizer (2.7 phr) + aluminium trihydrate filler (100 phr) = 257.7 phr total.
2. Divide the plasticizer's own phr by that total: 55 / 257.7 = 0.2134.
3. Multiply by 100 to express it as a percentage: 55 / 257.7 x 100 = 21.3 wt% DIDP.

Any other recipe can be checked the same way with the PHR to weight percent calculator.

Substitution factors: replacing DEHP at equal hardness#

A substitution factor is the phr of a plasticizer needed to match the hardness of 1 phr DEHP, so DINP at a typical factor of 1.04 replaces 50 phr DEHP with about 52 phr. Table 2 lists typical substitution factors referenced to DEHP = 1.00, measured at Shore A 80 or at 50 phr; a value below 1.00 means the plasticizer is more efficient than DEHP by weight, and a value above 1.00 means more is needed.

Table 2. Typical substitution factors (DEHP = 1.00)

Typical values from one secondary source; confirm with the supplier's own substitution table.

A worked example shows how the factor is applied: 50 phr DEHP replaced with DINP at a typical factor of 1.04 requires 50 x 1.04 = 52 phr DINP to hold the same hardness. The test conditions behind each value are explained in full on plasticizer efficiency and substitution factors, and other swaps can be run directly in the plasticizer substitution calculator.

Which Plasticizer Is Best for Each PVC Application?#

The best plasticizer for PVC depends on service temperature, contact with food, skin or blood, and the permanence the part needs: DINP or DOTP for general-purpose goods, TOTM for hot cable, DOA for cold flex, and DINCH, DOTP or citrates for medical devices and toys. Table 3 summarises the master selection logic across nine applications; formulators should compare plasticizers by CAS number and regulatory status, not by trade name, since the same chemistry is sold under several brand names.

Table 3. Master selection table

n/a = no verified dosage in our source library; ask the supplier for its TDS range.

Request quotes for DINP, DOTP, DINCH, TOTM or ESBO: grade or CAS, volume, application, country. Get supplier quotes

Download the Plasticizer Selection Chart for PVC (PDF): 12 classes x 7 applications x EU/US status.

The plasticizer comparison of DEHP vs DINP vs DOTP vs DINCH vs TOTM covers the same nine applications side by side for readers who already know which two or three grades they are choosing between.

Wire and cable insulation#

PVC cable insulation uses low-volatility plasticizers: DIDP, DINP or DOTP for general building wire, and trimellitates such as TOTM where the insulation runs hot. A Huber reference recipe for cable insulation combines PVC K70 resin (100 phr) with DIDP (55 phr), a lead-free heat stabilizer (2.7 phr), aluminium trihydrate (45-100 phr) and zinc borate (5 phr) with chalk (10 phr), reaching a limiting oxygen index of 26-27 % and a UL 94 V-0 rating at 3 mm thickness; PVC cable insulation needs a minimum limiting oxygen index of 26 vol% oxygen. Where the insulation must survive continuous high temperature, TOTM's decomposition onset of 262 °C, against 236 °C for DOA at the same 50 phr loading (Kaya et al. 2026), makes it the preferred choice. Medium-chain chlorinated paraffins carry a 2-year exemption under the EU POPs rules for flexible PVC used in construction wires and cables.

Temperature classes are matched to grades on plasticizers for wire and cable. The full cable additive package, including flame retardants and smoke suppressants alongside the plasticizer, is covered on additives for wire and cable compounds.

Flooring and wallcovering#

PVC flooring and wallcovering are spread-coated from plastisols plasticized mainly with DINP, DOTP or DINCH, with a benzoate such as DPGDB added where faster gelation is needed. DINP is close to a 1:1 substitute for DEHP by dosage in Swiss flooring (Klotz et al. 2024, Environmental Science & Technology), and DEHCH serves the same flooring and wallcovering role as its hydrogenated analogue. A study of 151 Swiss PVC floorings by Wiesinger and colleagues (2024, ETH Zurich) found that 29 % of samples contained ortho-phthalates other than the one declared, above the 0.1 wt% threshold. Design floor coverings grew from about 500 million m² in 2018 to 920 million m² by 2023 (Baerlocher).

Calendered film and cling film#

PVC cling film is plasticized mainly with DOA (DEHA), whose EU specific migration limit is 18 mg/kg of food and whose US use in vinyl chloride film is capped at 24-35 % depending on film thickness. DOA carries EU FCM number 207 with that 18 mg/kg specific migration limit, while 21 CFR 178.3740 sets the US caps by film gauge. DINCH is used up to 10 % in cling film intended for fresh meat and up to 35 % in aqueous food film. Calendered film produced in the EU is stabilized almost solely with barium/zinc and calcium/zinc systems. Every specific migration limit relevant to film plasticizers is listed under plasticizers in food contact materials.

Plastisols, coatings and closure gaskets#

PVC plastisols need a plasticizer that keeps paste viscosity low in storage yet gels the resin at 140-220 °C, which is why they combine a general-purpose plasticizer with a fast fuser or a viscosity-stable grade such as DINCH. Closure gaskets typically carry 25-45 % plasticizer, mostly ESBO alongside a phthalate. Fast fusers raise plastisol viscosity over storage time, while DINCH gives a lower initial viscosity and better viscosity stability than DOP or DINP. A Swiss survey by Anja Fankhauser-Noti and Koni Grob (Kantonales Labor Zürich) measured ESBO migrating from gaskets into baby food at levels from below 1.5 to 50.8 mg/kg, with a mean of 11.9 mg/kg; the EU specific migration limit for ESBO is tightened to 30 mg/kg specifically for infant-food jar gaskets. Paste viscosity and gelation behaviour are covered in full on plasticizers for PVC plastisol.

Medical devices#

Medical PVC is moving from DEHP to DINCH, DEHT (DOTP), TOTM and BTHC, the four alternatives the European Pharmacopoeia lists for blood containers, before DEHP needs an EU authorisation from 1 July 2030. DEHP historically ran up to 40 wt% in IV bags and up to 80 wt% in tubing. Bernard and colleagues (2018, PLoS One) measured actual plasticizer content in French PVC infusion lines: TOTM at 30-41 wt%, DEHT at 26.7-37.5 wt%, DINCH at 30.2-44.3 wt% and DINP at 34.9-48.7 wt%. Under Regulation (EU) 2023/2482, DEHP's latest application date in medical devices is 1 January 2029, with a sunset date of 1 July 2030. The EU Medical Device Regulation, Annex I point 10.4, requires justification and labelling for any device containing more than 0.1 % w/w of a CMR 1A/1B or endocrine-disrupting substance, and the FDA issued a Public Health Notification on this topic on 12 July 2002. Blood-bag composition data by grade are on plasticizers for medical devices.

Toys and childcare articles#

Toys and childcare articles use DOTP, DINCH, ATBC or COMGHA because ortho-phthalates are capped at 0.1 % in the EU (REACH Annex XVII entries 51 and 52) and in the US (16 CFR 1307). Entry 51 caps DEHP, DBP, BBP and DIBP at 0.1 % combined in plasticized material across all articles, in force since 7 July 2020, while entry 52 applies the same 0.1 % limit to DINP, DIDP and DNOP specifically in toys and childcare articles that children can place in the mouth. In the US, 16 CFR 1307 permanently bans DEHP, DBP and BBP above 0.1 % in children's toys and childcare articles, and added DINP, DIBP, DPENP, DHEXP and DCHP to that list from 25 April 2018; DIDP and DNOP are not restricted there. Canada's SOR/2016-188 caps the same group at 1,000 mg/kg, and the EU Toy Safety Regulation (EU) 2025/2509 applies generally from 1 August 2030. Rules by country are on plasticizers for toys.

Automotive interiors#

Automotive interior PVC uses TOTM, polymeric plasticizers or high-MW phthalates such as DIDP and DPHP, because volatile plasticizers condense on the windscreen and fail the DIN 75201 fogging test. Fogging is measured under DIN 75201 or the VDA 278 volatile-organic-compound protocol (90 °C for 30 minutes), and TOTM's low volatility, together with polymeric plasticizers' near-zero volatility, makes both classes standard choices for interior trim, seals and dashboards. DIDP and DPHP fill the same low-fogging role wherever a general-purpose grade is preferred over a specialty ester. Fogging values by grade are on low-fogging plasticizers for automotive interiors.

How Do Plasticizers Interact with Other PVC Additives?#

Plasticizers change how the rest of a PVC formulation works: ESBO doubles as a co-stabilizer for Ca/Zn systems, chlorinated paraffins and phosphates add flame retardancy, and every monomeric plasticizer can migrate into adhesives or into polystyrene and ABS parts that touch the PVC. Table 4 lists the main co-additive interactions a formulator needs to account for.

Table 4. Plasticizer interactions with co-additives

Every monomeric plasticizer is small enough to migrate out of PVC and into a contacting substrate, an effect that can craze polystyrene, stress-crack ABS or degrade the bond line of an adhesive over time. Formulators facing this problem typically move to a polymeric or trimellitate plasticizer, both of which migrate far more slowly because of their higher molecular weight. ESBO's second role as a co-stabilizer is covered in more detail under PVC co-stabilizers.

How Is Plasticized PVC Tested?#

Plasticized PVC is tested for hardness, low-temperature flexibility, compatibility and permanence: Shore A to ASTM D2240 or ISO 868, torsional stiffness to ASTM D1043, loop spew to ASTM D3291, and volatility, migration and extraction to ISO 176, ISO 177 and ASTM D1239.

Hardness, low-temperature flexibility and compatibility#

Shore A hardness is the main acceptance value for flexible PVC, and it is only comparable when the reading time is stated: 15 seconds under ISO 868, 1 second under ASTM D2240 unless another time is specified. Table 5 lists the standards a formulator checks a plasticized compound against.

Table 5. Test standards for hardness, flexibility and compatibility

Shore readings under 10 or over 90 are unreliable and call for switching to a harder or softer durometer scale, and a specimen must be at least 6 mm thick for a reliable reading. Shore hardness of plasticized PVC and how it maps to formulation choices is covered separately in more depth.

Permanence: volatility, extraction and migration#

Plasticizers leave PVC by 3 routes: volatility into air (ASTM D1203, ISO 176), extraction into liquids such as soapy water or oil (ASTM D1239), and migration into solids that touch the PVC (ISO 177).

• Volatility, loss into air, is driven mainly by the plasticizer's molecular weight and vapour pressure; DINCH's vapour pressure of below 0.01 mbar at 20 °C illustrates why higher-molecular-weight or ring-hydrogenated grades volatilise slowly.
• Extraction, loss into a contacting liquid, is tested with water, soapy water, oils, hexane or food simulants under ASTM D1239 and related methods.
• Migration, transfer into a contacting solid, is measured under ISO 177 and governs how much plasticizer moves into an adhesive, a gasket or another plastic part touching the PVC.

Polymeric plasticizers resist all three loss routes far better than monomeric esters, precisely because their larger molecular size restricts diffusion through the PVC matrix. Prevention measures for each loss route are detailed on plasticizer migration, extraction and volatility.

Do plasticizers leach out of PVC over time?#

Yes: plasticizers are not chemically bound to PVC, so they slowly evaporate, extract or migrate out of it, and high-molecular-weight grades such as TOTM or polymeric plasticizers leach far less than low-molecular-weight ones. As plasticizer is lost, the compound loses flexibility, becomes brittle and can crack; this loss is what the mechanistic solvation-desolvation theory predicts, since even a fully compatible plasticizer keeps exchanging in and out of solvation around the PVC chain rather than being permanently locked in place.

Which Plasticizers Are Restricted in PVC?#

Four low-molecular-weight phthalates, DEHP, DBP, BBP and DIBP, are limited to 0.1 % in plasticized articles in the EU and in US children's products, while DINP is restricted only in toys and childcare articles and DOTP, DINCH and TOTM are not restricted. Table 6 sets the main PVC plasticizers against their status under six regulatory instruments. Full country-by-country coverage, including Japan, Canada and China, is on phthalate restrictions worldwide.

Table 6. Regulatory matrix for PVC plasticizers

"-" cells mean the item is not captured by our source library; a blank status is never treated as "no".

EU REACH: Annex XVII entries 51 and 52, Annex XIV and the Candidate List#

REACH Annex XVII entry 51 has limited DEHP, DBP, BBP and DIBP to 0.1 % by weight, alone or combined, in the plasticized material of almost all articles since 7 July 2020, and entry 52 applies the same 0.1 % limit to DINP, DIDP and DNOP only in toys and childcare articles that children can put in the mouth. Entry 51 stems from Regulation (EU) 2018/2005 and exempts industrial- or agricultural-only articles, motor vehicles, aircraft and medical devices. DINP is not banned in the EU. Under Annex XIV, DEHP holds entry 4, BBP entry 5, DBP entry 6 and DIBP entry 7, each with a latest application date of 21 August 2013 and a sunset date of 21 February 2015; Regulation (EU) 2021/2045 later added endocrine-disrupting-property grounds to their SVHC listings. DEHP's medical-device timeline runs separately under Regulation (EU) 2023/2482. In November 2023, ECHA's investigation into PVC additives, covering 63 substances, recommended that the Commission pursue a REACH restriction on ortho-phthalate plasticisers as a group. Entry texts are quoted in full on REACH Annex XVII restrictions on plastic additives.

EU food contact: Regulation (EU) No 10/2011 limits for plasticizers#

Since Regulation (EU) 2023/1442 entered into force on 1 August 2023, DEHP may migrate from PVC food-contact materials at no more than 0.6 mg/kg of food, and DINP and DIDP together at no more than 1.8 mg/kg. DBP's specific migration limit fell to 0.12 mg/kg and BBP's to 6 mg/kg, both down from their pre-2023 values, and a new group restriction 36 caps DBP, DIBP, BBP and DEHP together at 0.6 mg/kg expressed as DEHP equivalents (DBP weighted x5, DIBP x4, BBP x0.1, DEHP x1). Group 32 plasticisers, which includes DOTP, DINCH and ESBO among others, remains capped at 60 mg/kg. These four low-molecular-weight phthalates are authorised only in repeated-use articles with non-fatty foods, and DIBP itself is not an authorised additive at all, counted only within groups 32 and 36. Simulants and the overall migration limit are explained on EU 10/2011.

United States: FDA, CPSIA, TSCA and Proposition 65#

In the US, 8 ortho-phthalates, including DEHP, DINP and DIDP, remain authorised as food-contact plasticizers after the FDA rule of 20 May 2022, while CPSIA (16 CFR 1307) bars more than 0.1 % of DEHP, DBP, BBP, DINP, DIBP, DPENP, DHEXP and DCHP from children's toys and childcare articles. That FDA final rule (87 FR 31080) left DINP, DIDP, DEHP, DCHP, BPBG, DEP, EPEG and DIOP authorised as food-contact plasticizers. On 27 May 2026, the FDA proposed a cumulative safety-assessment group covering DEHP, DCHP, DIOP and DINP (docket FDA-2026-N-5776, comments open to 26 July 2026); this is a proposal, not a ban, and DINP has not been withdrawn from food-contact use. Separately, the EPA published final TSCA risk evaluations for BBP, DBP, DCHP, DEHP and DIBP on 6 January 2026 (91 FR 373), and DINP (15 January 2025, 90 FR 3828) and DIDP (6 January 2025, 90 FR 638) were found to present unreasonable risk to workers only. 21 CFR 178.3740 is decoded in full on FDA food contact rules for plastic additives, and testing exemptions are on CPSIA phthalate limits (16 CFR 1307).

Chlorinated paraffins under the POPs rules#

Short-chain chlorinated paraffins have been banned as persistent organic pollutants since their 2017 Stockholm listing, and medium-chain MCCP follows: the Stockholm listing enters into force on 16 December 2026, and the Commission adopted the matching EU POPs act on 11 September 2026. SCCP sits under Stockholm Annex A (SC-8/11, 2017) and EU POPs Regulation (EU) 2019/1021, Annex I, Part A. MCCP was added to Stockholm Annex A by decision SC-12/10 at COP-12 in 2025, and the EU delegated act, C(2026) 6262, sets an unintentional-trace-contaminant threshold of 0.1 % by weight, with a temporary 2 % threshold for recovered PVC from cable recycling and a 2-year exemption for flexible PVC in construction wires and cables; the act was not yet published in the Official Journal at the time of writing. Exemptions are listed in full on MCCP (medium-chain chlorinated paraffins).

Who Supplies Plasticizers for PVC?#

Plasticizers for PVC are made by ExxonMobil, BASF, Evonik Oxeno, Eastman, Lanxess, Hanwha and Nan Ya Plastics, and the same chemistry is sold under several brand names. Table 7 lists the main brand equivalents; buyers should compare offers by CAS number and regulatory status, not by brand name.

Table 7. Producers and PVC plasticizer brand equivalents

This table lists brand equivalents, not a performance-equivalence claim.

Plants by country are in the directory of plasticizer manufacturers and suppliers. On the market side, Chinese DOP prices fell by RMB 1,700-1,750 per tonne between January and November 2025, the US imposed antidumping duties on DOTP from Turkey, Malaysia, Taiwan and Poland, and the 2025-26 outlook is described as ample supply against flat demand (ResourceWise). Price drivers are tracked in plasticizer prices. Send one request to several producers with the plastic additive supplier finder.

Request quotes for DINP, DOTP, DINCH, TOTM or ESBO: grade or CAS, volume, application, country. Get supplier quotes

What Other Additives Does Flexible PVC Need?#

A flexible PVC compound needs more than a plasticizer: every formulation carries a heat stabilizer, and most add a filler, a lubricant and, for cable, a flame retardant and smoke suppressant. The complete formulation package for both rigid and flexible grades is on additives for PVC.

Full recipes by application, cable, film, flooring and plastisol among them, are on flexible PVC formulations.

Heat stabilizers and co-stabilizers in flexible PVC#

Flexible PVC is stabilized mainly with liquid or powder Ca/Zn and Ba/Zn systems, because the EU has limited lead in PVC to below 0.1 % since 29 November 2024. Calendered film produced in the EU uses almost solely barium/zinc and calcium/zinc systems, while flooring formulations typically use liquid calcium/zinc, barium/zinc or potassium/zinc systems with a kicker added for foamed layers. Ca/Zn, Ba/Zn and tin systems are compared under PVC heat stabilizers.

Plasticizers in polymers other than PVC#

Outside PVC, plasticizers soften PLA (citrates such as ATBC), PVB laminated-glass interlayers (3GO or DBS at 20-40 % w/w) and nitrile rubber, while EPDM uses mineral oils because ester plasticizers are incompatible with it. ATBC is miscible with PLA up to about 50 wt% and gives PLA over 300 % elongation at 13 wt% loading or above. Nitrile rubber (NBR) is the largest elastomer user of ester plasticizers among the synthetic rubbers. Plasticizers for PLA and plasticizers for rubber and elastomers each follow a different compatibility logic than PVC does.

What is unplasticized PVC (uPVC)?#

Unplasticized PVC (uPVC, PVC-U) is rigid PVC made without a plasticizer, used for pipe, window profiles and siding, and it makes up about 60 % of PVC processed in the EU.

Why does old vinyl become sticky or brittle?#

Old vinyl turns sticky when plasticizer exudes to the surface and brittle when plasticizer has evaporated or migrated away, since PVC without enough plasticizer returns toward its rigid state. Exudation, also called spew or bleeding, happens when the plasticizer becomes incompatible with the PVC matrix, an effect that shows up most often at low temperature or under sustained compression.

Are plasticizers in PVC toxic?#

Four low-molecular-weight phthalates used in PVC (DEHP, DBP, BBP and DIBP) carry a harmonised EU classification as toxic for reproduction, while DINP, DOTP, DINCH and TOTM carry no harmonised classification. DEHP, DBP, BBP and DIBP each carry the harmonised hazard statement H360 for reproductive toxicity under CLP. DINP was reviewed by ECHA's Risk Assessment Committee in 2018, which concluded that no reproductive classification was warranted. Exposure studies and the full toxicological picture are summarised in phthalates: health effects, exposure and regulation.